Albert Einstein: Nobel Prize in Physics 1921

Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich, where he later on began his schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he acquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor's degree.

In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton*. He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his post in 1945.

Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and the determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to visualize the main stages on the way to his goal. He regarded his major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realized the inadequacies of Newtonian mechanics and his special theory of relativity stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantum theory: this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.

In the 1920's, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified field theories, although he continued to work on the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work in America. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a monatomic gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology.After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of the basic concepts of physics, taking the opposite approach, geometrisation, to the majority of physicists.Einstein's researches are, of course, well chronicled and his more important works include Special Theory of Relativity (1905), Relativity (English translations, 1920 and 1950), General Theory of Relativity (1916), Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement (1926), and The Evolution of Physics (1938). Among his non-scientific works, About Zionism (1930), Why War? (1933), My Philosophy (1934), and Out of My Later Years (1950) are perhaps the most important.

From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967

Al Razi

Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi (864-930 A.D.) was born at Ray, Iran. Initially, he was interested in music but later on he learned medicine, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry and philosophy from a student of Hunayn Ibn Ishaq, who was well versed in the ancient Greek, Persian and Indian systems of medicine and other subjects. He also studied under Ali Ibn Rabban. The practical experience gained at the well-known Muqtadari Hospital helped him in his chosen profession of medicine. At an early age he gained eminence as an expert in medicine and alchemy, so that patients and students flocked to him from distant parts of Asia.

Razi was a Hakim, an alchemist and a philosopher. In medicine, his contribution was so significant that it can only be compared to that of Ibn Sina. Some of his works in medicine e.g. Kitab al- Mansoori, Al-Hawi, Kitab al-Mulooki and Kitab al-Judari wa al- Hasabah earned everlasting fame. Kitab al-Mansoori, which was translated into Latin in the 15th century A.D., comprised ten volumes and dealt exhaustively with Greco-Arab medicine. Some of its volumes were published separately in Europe.

His al-Judari wal Hasabah was the first treatise on smallpox and chicken-pox, and is largely based on Razi's original contribution: It was translated into various European languages. Through this treatise he became the first to draw clear comparisons between smallpox and chicken-pox. Al-Hawi was the largest medical encyclopaedia composed by then. It contained on each medical subject all important information that was available from Greek and Arab sources, and this was concluded by him by giving his own remarks based on his experience and views. A special feature of his medical system was that he greatly favoured cure through correct and regulated food. This was combined with his emphasis on the influence of psychological factors on health. He also tried proposed remedies first on animals in order to evaluate in their effects and side effects. He was also an expert surgeon and was the first to use opium for anaesthesia.

In addition to being a physician, he compounded medicines and, in his later years, gave himself over to experimental and theoretical sciences. It seems possible that he developed his chemistry independently of Jabir Ibn Hayyan. He has portrayed in great detail several chemical reactions and also given full descriptions of and designs for about twenty instruments used in chemical investigations. His description of chemical knowledge is in plain and plausible language. One of his books called Kitab-al-Asrar deals with the preparation of chemical materials and their utilization. Another one was translated into Latin under the name Liber Experi- mentorum, He went beyond his predecessors in dividing substances into plants, animals and minerals, thus in a way opening the way for inorganic and organic chemistry. By and large, this classification of the three kingdoms still holds. As a chemist, he was the first to produce sulfuric acid together with some other acids, and he also prepared alcohol by fermenting sweet products.
His contribution as a philosopher is also well known. The basic elements in his philosophical system are the creator, spirit, matter, space and time. He discusses their characteristics in detail and his concepts of space and time as constituting a continuum are outstanding. His philosophica! views were, however, criticised by a number of other Muslim scholars of the era.
He was a prolific author, who has left monumental treatises on numerous subjects. He has more than 200 outstanding scientific contributions to his credit, out of which about half deal with medicine and 21 concern alchemy. He also wrote on physics, mathe- matics, astronomy and optics, but these writings could not be preserved. A number of his books, including Jami-fi-al-Tib, Mansoori, al-Hawi, Kitab al-Jadari wa al-Hasabah, al-Malooki, Maqalah fi al- Hasat fi Kuli wa al-Mathana, Kitab al-Qalb, Kitab al-Mafasil, Kitab-al- 'Ilaj al-Ghoraba, Bar al-Sa'ah, and al-Taqseem wa al-Takhsir, have been published in various European languages. About 40 of his manuscripts are still extant in the museums and libraries of Iran, Paris, Britain, Rampur, and Bankipur. His contribution has greatly influenced the development of science, in general, and medicine, in particular.

Ibnu Sina - Tokoh Perubatan Islam

Ibnu Sina merupakan tokoh perubatan Islam yang terulung. Sumbangannya dalam bidang perubatan bukan sahaja diperakui oleh dunia Islam tetapi juga oleh para sarjana Barat. Nama sebenar Ibnu Sina ialah Abu Ali al-Hussian Ibnu Abdullah. Tetapi di Barat, beliau lebih dikenali sebagai Avicenna.

Ibnu Sina dilahirkan pada tahun 370 Hijrah bersamaan dengan 980 Masihi. Pengajian peringkat awalnya bermula di Bukhara dalam bidang bahasa dan sastera. Selain itu, beliau turut mempelajari ilmu-ilmu lain seperti geometri, logik, matematik, sains, fiqh, dan perubatan.
Walaupun Ibnu Sina menguasai pelbagai ilmu pengetahuan termasuk falsafah tetapi beliau lebih menonjol dalam bidang perubatan sama ada sebagai seorang doktor ataupun mahaguru ilmu tersebut.

Bukunya Al Qanun fi al-Tibb telah diterbitkan di Rom pada tahun 1593 sebelum dialihbahasakan ke dalam bahasa Inggeris dengan judul Precepts of Medicine. Dalam jangka masa tidak sampai 100 tahun, buku itu telah dicetak ke dalam 15 buah bahasa. Pada abad ke-17, buku tersebut telah dijadikan sebagai bahan rujukan asas diuniversiti-universiti Itali dan Perancis. Malahan sehingga abad ke-19, bukunya masih diulang cetak dan digunakan oleh para pelajar perubatan.
Ibnu Sina juga telah menghasilkan sebuah buku yang diberi judul (Remedies for The Heart) yang mengandungi sajak-sajak perubatan. Dalam buku itu, beliau telah menceritakan dan menghuraikan 760 jenis penyakit bersama dengan cara untuk mengubatinya. Hasil tulisan Ibnu Sina sebenarnya tidak terbatas kepada ilmu perubatan sahaja. Tetapi turut merangkumi bidang dan ilmu lain seperti metafizik, muzik, astronomi, philologi (ilmu bahasa), syair, prosa, dan agama.

Ibnu Sina ialah beliau juga merupakan seorang ahli falsafah yang terkenal. Beliau pernah menulis sebuah buku berjudul al-Najah yang membicarakan persoalan falsafah. Pemikiran falsafah Ibnu Sina banyak dipengaruhi oleh aliran falsafah al-Farabi yang telah menghidupkan pemikiran Aristotle. Oleh sebab itu, pandangan perubatan Ibnu Sina turut dipengaruhi oleh asas dan teori perubatan Yunani khususnya Hippocrates.

Ibnu Sina percaya bahawa setiap tubuh manusia terdiri daripada empat unsur iaitu tanah, air, api dan angin. Keempat-empat unsur ini memberikan sifat lembap, sejuk, panas, dan kering serta sentiasa bergantung kepada unsur lain yang terdapat dalam alam ini. Ibnu Sina percaya bahawa wujud ketahanan semula jadi dalam tubuh manusia untuk melawan penyakit. Jadi, selain keseimbangan unsur-unsur yang dinyatakan itu, manusia juga memerlukan ketahanan yang kuat dalam tubuh bagi mengekalkan kesihatan dan proses penyembuhan.
Pengaruh pemikiran Yunani bukan sahaja dapat dilihat dalam pandangan Ibnu Sina mengenai kesihatan dan perubatan, tetapi juga bidang falsafah. Ibnu Sina berpendapat bahawa matematik boleh digunakan untuk mengenal Tuhan. Pandangan seumpama itu pernah dikemukakan oleh ahli falsafah Yunani seperti Pythagoras untuk menghuraikan mengenai sesuatu kejadian. Bagi Pythagoras, sesuatu barangan mempunyai angka-angka dan angka itu berkuasa di alam ini. Berdasarkan pandangan itu, maka Imam al-Ghazali telah menyifatkan fahaman Ibnu Sina sebagai sesat dan lebih merosakkan daripada kepercayaan Yahudi dan Nasrani.
Sebenarnya, Ibnu Sina tidak pernah menolak kekuasaan Tuhan. Dalam buku An-Najah, Ibnu Sina telah menyatakan bahawa pencipta yang dinamakan sebagai "Wajib al-Wujud" ialah satu. Dia tidak berbentuk dan tidak boleh dibahagikan dengan apa-apa cara sekalipun. Menurut Ibnu Sina, segala yang wujud (mumkin al-wujud) terbit daripada "Wajib al-Wujud" yang tidak ada permulaan.

Pemikiran falsafah dan konsep ketuhanannya telah ditulis oleh Ibnu Sina dalam bab "Himah Ilahiyyah" dalam fasal "Tentang adanya susunan akal dan nufus langit dan jirim atasan.
Pemikiran Ibnu Sina ini telah rnencetuskan kontroversi dan telah disifatkan sebagai satu percubaan untuk membahaskan zat Allah. Al-Ghazali telah menulis sebuah buku yang berjudul Tahafat al'Falasifah (Tidak Ada Kesinambungan Dalam Pemikiran Ahli Falsafah) untuk membahaskan pemikiran Ibnu Sina dan al-Farabi.
Antara percanggahan yang diutarakan oleh al-Ghazali ialah penyangkalan terhadap kepercayaan dalam keabadian planet bumi, penyangkalan terhadap penafian Ibnu Sina dan al-Farabi mengenai pembangkitan jasad manusia dengan perasaan kebahagiaan dan kesengsaraan di syurga atau neraka.
Walau apa pun pandangan yang dikemukakan, sumbangan Ibnu Sina dalam perkembangan falsafah Islam tidak mungkin dapat dinafikan. Bahkan beliau boleh dianggap sebagai orang yang bertanggungjawab menyusun ilmu falsafah dan sains dalam Islam. Sesungguhnya, Ibnu Sina tidak sahaja unggul dalam bidang perubatan tetapi kehebatan dalam bidang falsafah mengatasi gurunya sendiri iaitu al-Farabi.

Archimedes: continue

Archimedes Screw
or Archimedean screw, or screwpump, is a machine historically used for transferring water from a low-lying body of water into irrigation ditches. It is one of several inventions and discoveries reputed to have been made by Archimedes, but as some researchers suggest, some form of this mechanism may have been used earlier by Sennacherib, King of Assyria, in the 7th century BC.

http://www.crystalinks.com/archimedes.html

Archimedes: Mathematician, Physicist, Engineer

Archimedes of Syracuse (c.287 BC - c. 212 BC) was an ancient Greek mathematician, physicist and engineer. Although little is known about his life, he is regarded as one of the most important scientists in classical antiquity. In addition to making important discoveries in the field of mathematics and geometry, he is credited with producing machines that were well ahead of their time.
The Ancient Roman historians showed a strong interest in Archimedes and wrote several biographies relating to his life and works, while the few copies of his treatises that survived through the Middle Ages were a major influence on scientists during the Renaissance.
Archimedes produced the first known summation of an infinite series with a method that is still used in the area of calculus today.
Archimedes was a famous mathematician whose theorems and philosophies became world known. He gained a reputation in his own time which few other mathematicians of this period achieved. He is considered by most historians of mathematics as one of the greatest mathematicians of all time.